700-200 BCE The Greek City-State

Greek architecture was formed with civil and religious architecture which are temples, altars, tombs, theater, Odeon, stadium, fountains, houses and castles. Temples; the most important part of temple is Cella other name is Naos. It is the most sacred part of statue of God. The ceiling generally is made of Keson. Cornice is generally ornamented with antefix which is shaped as the head of lion. The most characteristic element of Greek architecture is columns. The first columns were made of wood, after that columns were made of stones. It is a transition from adobe constructions to stone constructions.

Greek Architecture influenced from Egyptian Architecture. First sculptures, columns, beams and stone architecture are products of these influences. Like Egyptians, Greeks are influenced by regions of geography and climate conditions. Greek’s public structures were generally open air area and they contained stadia which is used for theater. For Greeks, going to theater was a ceremony of soul of community. Aim of theater was not only for entertainment, it’s aim is also contributing the political education. Temples: one of the most important structures of Greek’s were temples. They were not public area, only chosen people and priests came in to the temples. Whereas inside of temples were simple, out facade contain attentive art because public rituals did at altars.

Parthenon

• Athenian, Acropolis Greece
• 447-438 BCE
• Purpose: Temple to goddess Athena
• Iktinos, Kolikrates
• Museum
• Post and Lintel System

Parthenon is a Doric temple supported by Ionic columns. It has a rectangular floor and is made entirely from marble with limestone base. An Ionic frieze runs around its exterior walls. The east pediment narrates the birth of Athena while the west pediment shows the contest between Athena and Poseidon to become the city’s patron god. Sometimes there is only cella and all around stairs.

1500-750 BCE

The Aegean in the Bronze Age ( Labyrinths and Cyclopean Walls)

During the second millennium BCE, the cultures that developed around the Aegean Sea. The settlements on Crete, in Greece and in Turkey conserved a deep belief in the spiritual power of natural phenomena. In their cities and their architectural plans they chose hilly sites. Also large, unrendered stones, cyclopean walls are used by their architects.

Minoan Crete: One of the most extraordinary cultural awakenings of the Bronze Age occurred on Crete, a long, narrow island, on the southern rim of the Aegean Sea. The small town of Gournia, on the bay of Mirobello in the northeast, offered the best-preserved example of Minoan  urban layouts. They built artillery and military structures also they used fortification walls. There are no monumentality on the contrary Mycenaean. Their drainage system was excellent for water bearing. Decorations were evidently no less important than comfort. Also they built wooden columns and painted plastered walls(wall paintings). The subject matter of Minoan art was derived mainly from the natural world.

A modern copy of the ancient Minoan dolphin fresco is installed in place of the original dating from 1500 BC at Knossos palace, Heraklion (Iraklion), Crete, Greece, Europe. Knossos is a Minoan archeological site associated with the Labyrinth and Minotaur of Greek mythology. The Bronze Age palace of Knossos was first built around 1900 BC, destroyed by a large earthquake or foreign invaders in 1700 BC, rebuilt more grandly, then damaged several more times by earthquakes, by invasions, and in 1450 BC by the colossal volcanic eruption of Thera (modern Thira or Santorini). Invading Mycenaeans used Knossos as their capital as they ruled the island of Crete until 1375 BC. Archaeologist Arthur Evans excavated the Palace at Knossos from 1900-1905 and named the Minoan civilization of Crete after king Minos from Greek mythology. Homer’s epic poems of the Iliad and Odyssey are the first Greek literature to mention Minos as a king of Knossos, Crete. Minos was son of Zeus and Europa. Every nine years Minos made King Aegeus pick seven men and seven women to go to the Labyrinth to be eaten by the Minotaur, a creature half man and half bull. After his death, legendary Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades. The vast building complex at Knossos is popularly thought to be the site of the Labyrinth, which Greek mythology says was designed by architect Daedalus with such complexity that no one could ever find its exit. Published by Thames & Hudson Ltd in the book “Art and Archaeology of the Greek World” by Richard Neer 2012.

The sea provided many motifs, underwater plants floats and sway languidly. Dolphins play happily on little gold cup and large vases.

Here is the plan of Gournia, Crete. They like very much courtyard. Everybody lives in structures. It is Knossos, Crete. Ceramic figure. Frontality is very important. They used glazed ceramic which is faience. In ceramic figure, open bodice is used. Also her skirt is called as folded skirt.They used in structures vivid colors and figures. It is very colorful. Also their ornaments very durable and are covered the plaster.

Mycenaeans built cyclopean walls and Megaron palaces. They were more attacker and daring from Minoans. They were representative culture of Minoans. Unlike Cretan cities, their cities were sheltered. Tyrins city was located on limestone plateau. Megaron was the heart of palace. Houses and public buildings are located on Agora. People did trade and education. Then agora is defined with stoa.

New Kingdom Egypt: Akhenaten ( Amenhotep IV)  was a pharaoh of Egypt. He is also known as Akhenaton which is translated to mean successful for or of great to use the god Aten. Akhenaton want to changed his name after the conversion the cult of Aten, prior of this conversion he was known Amenhotep IV. He was the son of Amenhotep III and his wife Tiye. During the five years of sovereignty, he followed the policies of his father and the religious traditions of Egypt. However, in the fifth year, he pass a dramatic religious transformation, changed his loyalty from the cult of Amun to that of Aten and for the next twelve years, became famous as the heretic king who removed traditional religious rites of Egypt. Also he moved the capital city from Thebes to Amarna. Amarna is built as a shelter. All structures and ways are built as a place of a worship. After his death, the cult of Aten is removed and all over the things which are interested him are abolished. After his that, his groom become pharaoh for little time. After that although there is no blood relation, Horemneb became pharaoh. because he had military power. Moreover in this period with the separated of art and religion, the art improved, no longer pictures were very realistic and sculptures were perfect and well-made, also very detailed.

Egypt abounded in material also materials had high quality. First they used sand and clay later to endurable they used heat energy. They use wood little. Firstly they used square plan and then they started to use polygonal plan. High official people are built mastaba for their tombs. Their plan was rectangular and had flat roof. Walls were sloping with 75 degree. Also they are made of limestone.

1600-1700

Islamic Realms in Central Asia

• Islam spread to all over the world.
• Mosques decorated with excessive ornamentation, calligraphy, geometric patterns and mosaics. However it is banned the drawing people’s facial physical appearance.
• Minarets are built both functional and decorative.
• In India, in case of Mongol Dynasty, a lot of mosque and monument were built.
• In Iran,Safavid Dynasty witnessed innovator city plans and temple structures.

Constructionally, whereas covered bazaars, tunnel vaults and wrought gates were related with interior spaces of buildings, mosques were covered with domes. Long structures which means is balconies and qumbets of minarets called the people for praying. Fountains and pond were at entrance of yards because of the ritual ablution.

Taj Mahal (1630-53) Agra, India

Imperator of Mongol is Shah Jahan is built as shrine for his wife. White marbles and semi-precious stones were used. It has stupendous mihrab. At the middle of construction, there is bulbous dome and the surrounding of the dome, there are four dome which have same shape at four edges. Also these four domes increase mirror effect.

Shah Mosque, Esfahan Iran

In timely manner of Safavid Dynasty, the capital is moved to Esfahan. Shah Büyük Abbas is built a range of mosques, open spaces and monuments which are related to each other and result of these buildings, no longer the city is called as half of world. This mosque is the northward of naqsh-ı Jahan square. The access of mosques, there are high minarets and the biggest dome decorate with pink and turquoise glazed tile.

Catholic Europe

Sides are designed as meandering wall, floors were created ovals which are locked each other. Columns and pilasters were paired and located at different distances each other. Also interior spaces were detailed and at exterior spaces concave and convex surfaces were crashed. Baroque style started at Italy as a part of opponent of Reform. The aim of Catholic churches people’s put someone off the track from Protestantism. To make this, churches become flamboyant.

Mirror Gallery, Versailles Palace  (1678)

Mirror gallery was resistance point of third stage of structure. Saloon described the King at allegorical scene. Sumptuous Mirror belts reflect 17 windows which are at outdoor. Flamboyant mirrors, chandeliers and candelabras were symbol of richness of kingdom.

 

 

Ottoman Empire

 During the 16th and 17th centuries, Ottoman Empire include  Turkey, Middle East and North Africa. Suleiman The Magnificent is built a lot of construction. Also the most famous architect was Mimar Sinan. At the period of Suleiman The Magnificent , the emperor, art and architecture were developed. In architecture, there were the influence of both Byzantium effects and Europe effects. Mosques were built with Islam architecture and generally they are located in a ottoman Islamic social complex. In decoration, glazed tile and limestone were used. The big Ottoman Architect Sinan built constructions more than 300. He interiorised sense of central space and he did this with using columns, supports and arches. There are bazaar and kiosk in his secular constructions.

mimar sinan

kanuni sultan süleyman

Mimar Sinan / Suleymaniye Mosque

As the continuation of Fatih complex, so Suleymaniye do not only place of worship, it is also social and cultural center. Geometric shapes are located symmetrically. There are 4 minaret at 4 edges and near the large dome there are 2 semi domes. Like Hagia Sophia, so the Dome of Suleymaniye become disjoint with a row of window from weight towers. Mosque represents the magnificence of empire and Istanbul.

Mimar Sinan / Selimiye Mosque

This mosque is the masterpiece of Mimar Sinan. At interior space, with using geometry combined area is created. Splendid dome settled on eight support and four semi domes surround the edges of mosque.Also mihrab and minbar is the masterpiece of labor of marble.

 

Chapter 10 and 11

Humanist Italy

New thinkers wanted to read original works of the first era, not medieval interpretation. Because of that, they speed up to search about ancient text of the first era which were written in Greek and Latin. According to Humanist, the ancient text of the first era more realistic and also they had quality linguistic ability. This objective review, the first years of 15th century, with the falling of Constantinopolis get by the short hairs. The middle of 15th century, with the helping of Cosmo de Medici, Marsilio Fincio who is Florentine translated the all work of Plato. The result of reading of classical writing intensively, new teaching program which is Humanism appeared by Leonardo Bruni. Humanism is philosophical view which is about human values and success without religious dogma. Talk about mans glory is made of Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. He thinks that The god did not give a stable location for Adam and Pico believed that all things are possible because human have freewill and they can do what they want. The daring example of forcing of boundaries of human is that dome which is on cathedral of Santa Maria delle Fiore. Building large cross Gothic Churches started before the drawings of Arnolfo di Cambio. The east side of building occur by octagonal chapels after then more large gully is built.

Filippo Brunelleschi

He is the pioneer of building dome in Florence. Also he was famous of technical skill  and antique architectural information. He developed a method which can measure size of room which we are in and with this he is vanguard of free perspective. Filippo Brunelleschi was decisive person of Renaissance architecture. He firstly used Gothic style but then he created own wording. In his design, there were constant mathematics and technical principles. Design and construction of massive mass of Florence Cathedral is an example that he is leaving Gothic architecture.

The Dome of Florence Cathedral 

The cathedral is confidence monument of the city. Brunelleschi won the design competition, and then it built. The design occur by herring-born pattern dome. Thanks to octagonal plan, the height of dome can be increased. Big and circle windows brighten the cathedral. It made of two shell, inner shell carry the external shell. This system is used firstly in antique period. The dome represent the topography of Florence. This dome also take part in modern design of cathedral which is the fourth larger cathedral. (1st ; St. Peter Basilicas, 2nd St. Paul Cathedral, 3rd Milan Cathedral).

Chapter 8 and 9

WESTERN EUROPE after the ROMAN EMPIRE

When the western history is wrote at 15th century, the thinkers of Renaissance describe the period which is between glorious ages of the civilization of GREEK and ROME  and their era of enlightenment as dark ages. However the dark ages are not cultural infertility. There were a lot of attempts to develop. The one of attempt is  Carolingian Renaissance which is began by Charlemagne.Charlemagne emperor had no capital city but the main area was in Cologne and Aachen. This city became a cultural center of Europe rapidly. With the effort of rebirth is concluded a building of a octagonal chapel which is imitated by San Vitale Byzantium Emperor Church. This building is designed by Metz Odo at 792-805 and is built of face stone. The architecture of house and castle had a pyramid order like a hierarchical system. All units submitted peoples which had high authority from themselves. Also for security, wooden towers changed as a stone tower.

( the photos taken by  : http://blogs.hisarschool.k12.tr/orkansezer/2013/12/30/gunumuzu-bilmek-icin-gecmisi-bilmek-gerekir/)

Medieval monasteries became a cultural, political and agricultural center. Saint-Martin-du-Canigou Monastery was small and very good isolated example. It is built on steep knap. It had a irregular plan also the cast light was dim. Saint-Gall Monastery drawing is the oldest plan example because it is very important. It had a lot of altars and is rotated from west to east.Also it included inn like service buildings.

SAINT GALL PLAN

Saint-Martin-du-Canigou

Romanesque churches had massive masses and small windows. Because of the similar architectural element between roman architecture and Romanesque architecture, this style is named Romanesque Architecture. Saint Micheal church is an example of molar Romanesque Architecture and there was no city walls.

Pilgrimage Church are ornamented by sculptures which symbolized the eternal life. On the way of pilgrimage, there are two monastery churches which characterize the Romanesque Pilgrimage Church. These monasteries are Sainte – Foy church at Conques and Saint Sermin Church at To louse. Sainte Foy Church;

SAINTE FOY

SAINTE FOY

There were stone vault at all interior spaces. It had barrel vault which is reinforced by cross belt and also luminous intensity is low.

Saint- Sermin Church;

is vowed Sermin who the first patriarch at Toulouse. It is covered with vault. Saint- Sermin is more complex as a spaces than Sainte-Foy, also they have similar naves. Similarly luminous intensity is low.

800-1200

The aim of Islam religion promulgate the teaching of Prophet Muhammad. Islam spread as an urban phenomenon tied to military and political power. The mosque provided the new religious center upon of the cities under Islamic rules. Also they are generally built as a multi columned prayer hall.

Cami 56

The minaret, a thin tower for the muezzin to call loyal to prayer, added a new vertical axis to urban skylines. Despite this obvious irregularity, all of Islam shared an underscoring sense of order in the circular orientation of mosques, tombs and prayers toward the theological mainstay of Mecca. During the seventh century Islam spread swiftly, extirpating various pagan cults while pursuit to transform Jews and Christians through sophisticated convincing, economic incentives and military force. Mecca had long been a major cult site for nomadic tribes of Arabia. Impressive religious pilgrims to the Kaaba, a cubical and granitoid house including many idols, involving a inscrutable black meteorite. Muslim pilgrims circumambulate the Kaaba seven times as the exalted non-resistance to God. As the focus of Muslim prayers, the Kaaba shows the association of the loyalty. Aside from the Kaaba in Mecca, Muhammad straight-forwardly, influenced the conversion of his own house in Medina into the new religion’s first mosque ( place of prostration).

The mosque of the prophet in Medina probably resembled a small traders caravansary, Muhammad’s modest approach to architecture echoed his nomadic origins. The first mosques are built simple architectural elements without apses, side chapels, ambulatories, crypts, baptisteries or choirs. The side hall ways and the north archway of the Great Mosque of Damascus carry arched with explicit horses shoe shape, can descent inland above the imposts. The motif became largely associated with Islamic monumental architecture.

Southeast Asia and Southern India

Angkor Wat is a temple complex in Cambodia and the largest religious monument in the world. Furthermore Bagan is the ancient city where is in Mandala Zone. The kings of Bagan and Cambodian Khmer were modern. In Bagan, about 2000 temple were built, one of the example is the head of  Angkor Wat (12th century). It was in the capital city of old Khmer city and also the most big temple all Hindu temples. It was surrounded by broad ditch, gradual and rectangular complex. Also it had symbolic details which is relevant religion. Ancient Bagan City was built with bricks which are made of dusty soil. The city had thousands dome. Stu pas, Pagodas and Temples reflect a lot of different architectural touch.

BAGAN

ANGKOR WAT

Pagoda of Swezigon, the first example of pagoda for new pagoda buildings. It was covered with gold panels and the iam of pagoda was not worship, the aim was the relics of Buda could hide in this pagoda.

300-600

Gupta India

Indian temple builders (from 1st to the 8th centuries) carved into rock reefs or out of stacked stones, making an art of subtraction. Subtraction as a design method allowed one to forgo such functional criteria as foundations, support systems, and roofs but required creative strategic organization for the displacement of material. The age of the Gupta inspired the great cave monasteries, the sublime rock-cut temples carved from single masses of stone, and the first important masonry temples built like pyramids over small sanctuaries. The caves at Bhaja about 100 km southeast of Mumbai had a horses shoe shaped arch where entrance of caves with struts(support) carved under its recessed gable in imitation of wooden purlins. The original wooden entry door and clerestory window that protected the entry have long disappeared exposing its longitudinal cavern. Octagonal columns had u shaped nave. At the end of the axis of the chaitya hall at Bhaja a stupa rests on a cylindrical pedestal, capped with a square harmika. The walls were polished smooth and gentle to the touch. The largest and most ornate of the early rock-cut chaitya halls was built around 120 CE at Karli, not far from Bhaja. During the Gupta Period of the 4th and 5th centuries the same carving techniques used at Karli appeared the production of freestanding temples.

The sex of the Hindu temples: in the 6th century in India, the sexualization of architecture appeared clear to all. Among the most common cut object was the lingam, a literal phallus, sometimes embedded with the likeness of the god Shiva. During the Gupta period the first freestanding Hindu temples sheltered a garbha griha, meaning “womb chamber”. The cult of the goddess Mahadevi was represented by the yoni, a vulval form. During the Gupta Period a Hindu priest compiled the Kama Sutra a synthesis of various treatises on the art of love.

300 – 600

Emperor Constantine transport the capital from Rome to Byzantium at 330 and after that at 311, emperor Galerius embrace Christianity completely. New religion created a new aesthetic. In this way, the art of Byzantium developed. Religion influence the religious architecture. Firstly the building of Pagan temples are stopped and the first churches are buildings. First churches are derived from Rome Basilicas. In Constantine age, churches which are Betleem, Hagia Irine, Hagia Sophia, Pietro and Paolo were not vaulted. They were wooden basilicas. When Christianity became empire religion, three types churches were built

1) Basilicas

2)Central Planing Building

3)Combined Planning Building.

Hagia Eirene

Hagia Sophia

Basilicas: In the temple of Pagan, there was only sculpture of god and were not public. They had low clearance. The first basilicas were Santo Mario Maggiore and the ancient Rome Basilica.

Central Planing Building: Baptism: Ham-mam plans were used for baptism plan because there were baptism pool at middle of plan. as an example : San Giovanni Lateraro baptism and Theodoric Tomb .

Combine Planing Building: In these building, there were the mix of basilicas and central planing buildings.

San Paolo Basilica: The biggest church which type is basilica. San Paolo Basilica was made with the request of Constantine. On the bottom side there was bema and in main nave there was absid.

Santo Mario Maggiore

San Paolo Basilica

First Christian center is Byzantium. Whereas the Byzantium was a city of Rome, it had Greek cultural elements. After the building basilicas, domed Byzantine tone developed. The emperor abounded in material which were ashlar, timber block, and clay. also it ornamented with marbles and mosaics. Door and windows were generally round and arched.

Hagia Sophia: It was made with the request of Justin yen. It had rectangular shape, also the purpose of architect was creating functional and moving spaces. Arched and domes provide the purpose of architects.

Constantine

Justin yen

200 BCE- 300 CE

Ancient Mexico ( Pyramids and Sacrifice)

In human mind, most cultures designed with grid, an idea that seems rooted. Western Hemisphere produced grid patterns, as well as axial streets and pyramids. The ancient cultures in the Americas were significantly discrepant from those of Europe and Asia. They left proof that written language until 2. century BCE, were short of wheel and metal tools.

“While the Romans contrived a total architectural setting for the control of a secular society, the ancient Mexicans produced a theocratic environment, commanding behavior and respect of neighbors and pilgrims.”

Early Mesoamerican Cultures: The Space of Ceremonies

The culture of ancient Mexico tended to build more imposing monumental spaces. In some cities produced huge and sublime pyramids and attentively composed platform enclosures.

Three cultures which are

1. Teotihuacanos in the Valley of Mexico
2. The Zapotecs centered at Monte Alban in the Valley of Oaxaca
3. The early Mayans in the Guatemalan rain forests

of ancient Mexico reached high architectural expressions. The cyclical nature of political power is concertized by the monumental buildings of Ancient Mexico.                                               The Talud Toblero was a common horizontal motif in Ancient Mexico. (toblero is a framed horizontal casement).

Ancient China ( The Pivot of the Cosmos in Mud and Wood)

In the architecture of Ancient China the idea of building became more significant the the built work. Throughout the centuries, in ancient China contained some nomadic tribes and some tribes which are faraway from each other and enclosure terra-cota walls. In 220 BCE, to protect the border of country, construction of the great wall in China is started. In Han dynasty, the classic style of china architecture improved. Palaces and temples are placed symmetrically also a grille which had been by round columns carried the huge, horizontal roof.

Neolithic celestial built villages and graves in this period. Because of the coming of Buddhism, first temples are built also Buddhist temples carved on rocky places.

Pagoda ( a Buddhist temple in the state of Shaanxi) ; it has a square plan and made of wood, after this Pagoda had octagonal and round shapes.

Ancient Rome ( Governing through Architecture)

Romen architects generally influence the Greek architects. Romen architects used the classical system and ornament replicas of Greek’s sculptures. Casa Sannitica 200 BCE was a Italian city as a Pompeii. Sukemeri 100 CE : Romens learned the hydraulic system from Etruk and they built coves. After that they provide the carrying water from 30 km away.

Collosseum( naval battle)

The death arena of Ancient Rome… Technically, the system of underground chambers of arena, we can sense enclosure very good. At first floor, there was Doric order, at second floor, ionic and the third floor there was Corinth order. Also architects used Velarium to accesses to the seats and the sun shade.

Pergamon: 

In Pergamon, Agora as a large courtyard defined by continuous colonnades. ( stoa). Also there were monumental terraces and substructures. ( Monumental ism ex: Persepolis to for an artificial platform for architecture.)